Alkaloids Case Study Essay

Alkaloids are the most diverse group of secondary metabolites and over 5000 compounds are known. They are most commonly encountered in the plant kingdom, but representatives have been isolated from most other orders of organisms ranging from fungi to mammals. For years, there has been interest in their pharmacological activities, and for a long time selected plant products (containing alkaloids) have been used as poisons for hunting, murder, euthanasia, a euphoriants, psychedelics, and stimulants (e.g. morphine and cocaine) or as medicines (e.g. ephedrine). Many of our modern drugs now contain the same compound or synthetic analogues, and the pharmacological and toxicological properties of these compounds are thus of immense interest and importance. Almost two centuries have elapsed since Serturner isolated the first organic base clearly recognised as such, a crystalline substance that he obtained from the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, and called morphine. The name alkaloid is applied to the members of a class of natural products of basic nature, and is derived from the name â€Å"vegetable alkali† first applied to these substances. They all owe their basic nature to an amino nitrogen. It is more difficult than at first might be supposed to define the term alkaloid. The work was coined in 1818 by Meissner and implies a compound similar to an alkali, referring to the basic properties of this class of substance. Meyer’s Konversations- Lexikon of 1896 states, â€Å"Alkaloids (plant bases) occur characteristically in plants and are frequently distinguished by their remarkable physiological activity. They contain carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen and in most cases oxygen as well; in many cases they resemble the alkalisà ¢â‚¬ . Modern dictionary definitions only differ in minor details from those of the older nontechnical literature. A definition due to Pelletier in 1982 includes cyclic nitrogen- containing molecules which are true secondary metabolites (i.e. of limited occurrence and produced by living organisms. Simple acyclic derivatives of ammonia and simple amines are thus excluded, and the additional requirement, that the nitrogen atom must have a negative oxidation state, excludes nitro and nitroso compounds. As for other natural products, no uniform system of nomenclature has so far been devised for alkaloids. In most cases the name of the alkaloid has been derived from the plant name. Thus, papaverine was called after the Papaver species from which it was isolated. The names cocaine (from Erythoxylum coca) and atropine (from Atropa belladonna) are other examples. Frequently several alkaloids are obtained from the same plant, and the names devised for them will depend on the inspiration of the natural products chemist who isolated them. Alkaloids as a class have interested organic chemists partly on account of their physiological action on the animal organism, and partly on account of the complex structural and synthetical puzzles that they pose. The chemistry of the alkaloids is but a branch of the wide chemistry of nitrogenous heterocyclic compounds, but the methods by which the structures of individual bases are deduced from degradative evidence and confirmed by total synthesis are typical of the methods applied for these purposes whole field the chemistry of natural products are illustrative of the general fundamental principles of organic chemistry. Structural types Alkaloids are usually classified according to the amino acids (or their derivatives) from which they arise. Thus, the most important classes are derived from the following Amino acids: * Ornithine and Lysine * Aromatic amino acid phenylalanine and tyrosine * Tryptophan and a moiety of mevalonoid origin Also a number of compounds are also derived from: * Anthranilic acid * Nicotinic acid This classification however, fails to include the alkaloids derived from a polyketide or a terpenoid, with the incorporation of a nitrogen atom, ultimately from ammonia. Examples are Conine and batrachotoxin which are often known as ‘pseudoalkaloids’. Other compounds covered by Pelletier’s definition also exist. Examples are the antibiotic cycloserine, mitomycin C, mushroom toxin muscimol and the purine alkaloids such as caffeine. There is another classification of the alkaloids according to the location of the nitrogen atom in certain structural features: 1. Heterocyclic alkaloids 2. Alkaloids with exocyclic nitrogen and aliphatic amines 3. Putrescine, spermidine and spermine alkaloids 4. Peptide alkaloids 5. Terpene and steroidal alkaloids Classifying the whole range of alkaloids according to this system result in them being dividing them up unequally as the great majority fall into the heterocyclis group and the smallest group is the putrescine, spermidine and spermine alkaloids. Occurrence Of the more than 5000 alkaloids known, most occur in flowering plants, although the distribution is far from uniform. Thus, although 40% of all plant families have at least one species containing alkaloids, when the 10000 plant genera are considered, only about 9% of these have been shown to produce alkaloids. Increasing numbers of alkaloids have been isolated from animals, insects, and microorganisms. Although mammalian alkaloids are rare, two examples are (-)-castoramine (a) from the Canadian beaver; and muscopyridine (b) from the musk deer. Both compound have a role in communication as territorial marker substances. Insects produce a variety of structural types which include the 2,6- dialkylpiperidines of the fire ant (c), the tricyclic N-oxides of the ladybird (d) and the quinazolines of the European milliped (e). Tese compounds are used for defence. During the last three decades Marine organisms have been investigated. Amongst the alkaloids are the exceedingly complex Saxitoxin (f) produced by a red coloured dinoflagellate. The ‘red tides’ contain mass aggregations of such organisms, and food poisoning when he toxic alkaloids are passed along the food chain to man. The Japanese puffer fish is highly valued as a culinary delicacy, but it is hazardous because its liver and ovaries contain the highly toxic tetrodotoxin. Fungi also produce alkaloids, and these too, present potential hazards as food contaminants. The ergot alkaloids, for example, Chanoclavine (g) produced by the fungus Claviceps purpurea, were a frequent soure of misery and death during the Middle Ages through the contamination of rye bread. Some of these were neurotoxic whilst others caused vasocontriction. During the last 40 years most of these non plant alkaloids have been isolated and their structures elucidated. The introduction of modern chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques facilitated this. Isolation Work on the constitution of alkaloids is often prefaced by the problem of their isolation from plant material or from residues after commercially important constituents have been removed. The isolation of each alkaloid is an individual problem there are a variety of procedures which may be entitled to generic rank. There are few plants which produce a single alkaloid so the main problem is the separation of mixtures. Many alkaloids are basic and occur as salts of 2-hydroxybutane-1, 4-dioic acid (malic acid), or of 1,3,4,5-tetrahydroxycyclohexane (quinic acid). They can thus be extracted into acid solution using aqueous hydrochloric, tartaric, or citric acids. Neutral alkaloids such as colchicines or piperine, which are in fact amides, remain in the organic phase, whilst most other alkaloids are isolated after basification and extraction into ethyl acetate. Steam distillation can be used also be used with low molecular weight alkaloids; but almost invariably sudsequent purification of the crude alkaloid mixtures is effected by chromatography using silica or alumina, and then recrystallisation of the partially purified compounds from solvent systems like aqueous ethanol, methanol/chloroform, or methanol/acetone. Structure elucidation Classical era: The classical era for structural studies on alkaloids was the 19th Century, though this could be extended to the 1930’s (advent of x-ray crystallography) or even to the 1970’s (advent of high resolution NMR facilities and modern methods of mass spectroscopy. Two case histories will be discussed, those of morphine and atropine. Opium has been used by man for thousands of years, so it is not suprising that the major active ingedient, morphine, was the first alkaloid to be isolated in pure state (by Serturner in 1805). It was not until 1923 that Sir Robert Robinson established the stucture of morphine. Chemical evidence for the structure is as follows: Standard showed that the nitrogen atom was fully substituted, and that the phenolic hydroxyl was present as it gave a positive FeCl3 test. Two hydoxyls were present as a diacetate and dibenzoate could be formed. Both compounds contained one olefinic double bond as codeine absorbed one. It was found that a reduced phenanthrene with a two-carbon bridge containing a tertiary nitrogen atom (with methyl as on substituent) was present, and the structure of morphine and codeine were first proposed in 1923 and 1925 respectively by Robinson and Gulland. Synthesis of morphine was carried out in 1956 by Gates. Atropine on the other hand, is not generally a natural product but arises through racemisation of (-)-hyoscyamine (see (a) below) and purification, and is thus ( )-hyoscyamine. (-)-hyoscyamine is the most common tropane alkaloid. In 1833 atropine was isolated from Atropa belladonna. Hydrolysis with warm barium hydroxide solution produced racemic tropic acid and tropine. Degradative studies and then through synthesis found the structure of tropic acid: Exhaustive degradation of tropine, carried out by Willstlter between 1985 and 1901, provided evidence for the bicyclic structure of tropine. The most widely used process in degradative studies of alaloids is exhaustive methylation, known as Hofmann degradeation. . This involves the pyrolysis of a quaternary ammonium hydroxide to form and olefin an a tertiary base: To ensure the complete removal of the nitrogen atom when it constitutes part of a ring, two degrdations must be carried out. When exhaustive methylation of of cyclic compounds might be expected to give 1,4-dienes, the alkaline conditions of the reaction may result in the migration of one of the double bonds to give a 1,3-diene. For example, the exhaustive methylation of N-methylpiperidine gives 1,3-pentadiene (piperylene) and not 1,4-pentadiene. The diene is then easily hydrogenated to form a saturated hydrocarbon. If Hofmann degradation fails to bring about ring fission of cyclic amines, Emde degradation, invoving catalytic reduction of a quaternary salt by sodium amalgam or sodium in liquid ammonia, may be applied. For example, attempted Hofmann degradation of N-methyltetrahydroquinoline methoxide results in regeneration of the parent base, while Emde reduction with sodium amalgam affords the ring-opened amine. Alkaloids containing diphenyl ether linkages, for example, bis-benzylisoquinoline, are cleaved into two fragments by reduction with sodium in liquid ammonia. For example, the structure of the alkaloid dauricine was established by reductive cleavage of O-methyl-dauricine. Modern era: During the last 30 years, structure elucidation has benn facilitated by the use of mass spectroscopy, and 1H and 13C NMR techniques. It is now possible to determine the structure in days with a few milligrams or less of pure compound. It took 118 years to determine the structure of morphine. The mass spectrum data for morphine is highly informative and is shown below and would have helped enormously years ago. Once the structure of an alkaloid is known, partial or total synthesis can be attempted. Biosynthesis It is possible to determine the amino acid from which an alkaloid is derived just by looking at the structure. Before availability of radio-isotopes 14C and tritium, and more recently the stable isotopes 13C and 15N it was only possible to speculate about the likely biosynthetic pathways. This was sometimes successful as for example, the suggested pathway to the isoquinoline alkaloid is as follows: It is possible to divide the biosynthesis of the alkaloids into two categories according to whether products are obtained from the amino acids ornithine and lysine, or the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan. Alkaloids derived from ornithine and lysine: Pyrrolidine alkaloids – hygrine, cocaine, tropinone, hyoscyamine etc Piperidine alkaoids – piperine, (-)-lobeline etc Quinolizidine alkaloids – sparteine, cytosine, (-)-lupinine etc Pyridine alkaloids – nicotine, anabasine, anatabine etc Alkaloids derived from phenylalanine and tyrosine: Monocyclic compounds – hordenine etc Tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids – morphine, codeine, thebaine, noscapine (narcotine), papaverine, heroin etc Alkaloids derived from tryptophan: Simple indole derivatives: psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine, physostigmine etc Complex indole derivatives : harmaline, echinulin, ergonovine etc No class of naturally occurring organic substances shows such an enormous range of structures as the alkaloids with over 5000 known. It would be impossible to discuss each one of these within the time limit. Therefore, this project is concerned with the following alkaloids: Morphine ( including codeine and heroin), Cocaine, Nicotine and Caffeine (including theophylline). These alkaloids are present in enormous quantities in the world and seem appropriate to be discussed due to the current interest in their effects particularly when used illegally. They are some of the most well known alkaloids. Morphine (Codeine and Heroin) When the unripe seed capsules of the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, is cut or pricked, a viscous liquid is exuded. After the exudates dries and darkens with exposure to air, a hard but still partly sticky mass is obtained. This is opium, which has been used for many centuries by some for medicinal purposes. Opium is important as a painkilling drug in its own right, but is also the source of other analgesic drugs such as morphine and heroin. Mankind had discovered the use of opium by the time of the earliest written records. In fact, the first recorded use of opium as a painkiller was around 6000 years ago by the Sumerians, and the Babylonian and Egyptian writings contain many references to the value of opium preparations for the relief of pain. Thomas Sydenham, the 17th Century pioneer of English medicine wrote, â€Å"Among the remedies which it has pleased Almighty God to give to man to relieve its sufferings, none is so universal and so efficacious as opium†. Nowadays, alt hough opium is no longer regareded as a universal analgesic, it is still a very important source of morphine. The pharmacologically active constituents of opium have been employed in medicine for many thousand of years. During the 19th century these constituents were isolated as pure chemical entities. Morphine is a naturally occurring substance and is the major constituent of opium, constituting about 10% (sometimes up to 20%) of its weight. Morphine was first isolated in 1805 by Friedrich Sertrner. However, its basic structure was not correctly determined until 120 years later. Morphine provides symptomatic relief of moderately severe to severe pain. Morphine acts as an anesthetic without decreasing consciousness, and it is one of the most powerful analgesics known. However, it also suppresses the repiratory system, and high doses can cause death by respiratory failure. Its analgesic properties are related to the ability of the molecule to fit into and block a specific sit on a nerve cell. This eliminates the action of the pain receptor Cocaine Cocaine is obtained from coca leaves (Erythryloxum coca) and has the formula C17H23O4N and a molecular weight of 303.39. The anaesthetic properties of cocaine were first recognised by Koller in 1882, but it has now been largely replaced in the clinic by synthetic analogues due to its widespread abuse as a narcotic. It is, however, still much used as a stimulant by Andean Indians. After chewing the leaves, they are easily fatigued and can go on for long periods without food. Cocaine is shipped and sold in the form of the water-soluble hydrochloride salt, which may be ingested through the nasal passages by ‘snorting’ orally and intravenously. There are severe physical and psychological side effects of the drug, such as brain seizures, respiratory collapse, heart attack, paranoia, and depression. Cocaine may be hydrolysed by acids or alkalis to methyl alcohol, benzoic acid, and (-)-ecgonine, C9H15O3 N; only partial hydrolysis, to benzoyl- (-)-ecgonine, C16 H19O4 N, and methyl alcohol when the alkaloid is boiled with water. Cocaine can be regarded as being derived from ornithine. Willsttter worked on a tortuous synthesis (of about 20 steps) of tropinone between 1900 and 1903, but in 1917 Robinson reported his ‘one-pot’ synthesis and also provided what was probably the first example of a formal retrosynthetic analysis. He stated: ‘By imaginary hydrolysis at the points indicated by the dotted lines, the substance may be resolved into succinaldehyde, methylamine and acetone’. The yield of this reaction was poor but Schpf and Lehmann reported optimised conditions (buffered solution at pH5 and 25C) which allowed 85% yield. A variety of mechanisms are possible and the one shown below envisages a reaction between the enol form of acetone dicarboxylate and the condensation product from succinaldehyde and methylamine. Willsttter made his own contributions based on this type of chemistry, and completed simple synthesis of tropinone in 1921 and a synthesis of cocaine in 1923. The synthesis of cocaine is as follows: A Robinson- type reaction yielded the expected azabicyclo structure but with a fortuitous axial stereochemistry for the carbomethoxyl group. Racemic cocaine was formed after separation of the diastereoisomeric products on the reduction of the ketone and benzoylation of the mixture of alcohols. An important aspect of Robinson’s route is that it represented the first biomimetic synthesis of an alkaloid. He provided inspiration for others to consider possible biosynthetic pathways, before planning their synthetic routes to alkaloids. Nicotine Nicotine, present in dried tobacco leaves of the plant nicotiana tabacum in 2-8% concentration, is the active ingredient in cigarettes and other tobacco products. The reason tobacco is used by so many people is because it contains this powerful drug nicotine. When tobacco is smoked, nicotine is absorbed by the lungs and quickly moves into the bloodstream, where it is circulated throughout the brain. All of this happens very rapidly. In fact, nicotine reaches the brain within 8 seconds after someone inhales tobacco smoke. Nicotine can also enter the blood stream through the mucous membranes that line the mouth or nose, or even through the skin. Smoking and chewing tobacco have been connected to heart and lung disease and cancer, mainly a result of the presence of carcinogens, carbon monoxide and other toxins. Nicotine affects the entire body. Nicotine acts directly on the heart to change heart rate and blood pressure. It also acts on the nerves that control respiration to change breathing patterns. In high concentration, nicotine is deadly. In fact, one drop of purified nicotine on the tongue will kill a person. It’s so lethal that it has been used as a pesticide for centuries. So why do people smoke? The mode of action of nicotine is complex. Ingestion of the molecule may stimulate or calm the user and it may affect his or her mood, appetite, and cognition. There appears to be little doubt that nicotine is an addictive drug, and the debate about how to regulate its availability is ongoing. Nicotine is part of the pyridine alkaloids and is the chief alkaloid of tobacco. It can therefore be classed as a tobacco alkaloid. Nicotine has the empirical formula C10 H14 N2, a molecular weight of 162.26 and was first observed by Vanquelin in 1809 and isolated 19 years later by Posselt and Reimann. Its structure is as follows: It is a colourless liquid with a boiling point of 246.1-246.2C and is miscible in all proportions with water below 60 and above 210. It is less soluble between these temperatures. When oxidised with chromic acid it yields an amino acid, C6H5O2N, which may be decarboxylated to pyridine–carboxylic acid. Nicotine is therefore a 3-substituted pyridine and that the substituent is a saturated group containing five carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom. The alkaloid forms a crystalline addition compound with zinc chloride, and when this is heated with lime pyridine, pyrrole and methylamine are obtained, suggesting that the structure be as above (1). This was supported by the degradation of the alkaloid to N-methylproline (1) to (5) (below), the oxidation of dibromocotinine (6) to nicotinc acid, malonic acid and methylamine (6) to (7). Also, by the reductive hydrolysis of bromocotinine to methylamine and the dihydroxy-acid (8). The structure of nicotine was finally confirmed by synthesis. Three syntheses of nicotine have been recorded. The first was based on the discovery that N-acetylpyrrole is transformed by heat to C-acetylpyrrole shown to be ?-acetylpyrrole. Pictet and Crepieux applied this reaction to N- pyridylpyrrole (3) (below) obtained by the reaction of -aminopyridine1 with mucic acid (2). The compound 31- pyridyl-2-pyrrole (4) was formed. An attempt to methylate the pyrrole nitrogen by heating the potassium derivative with yielded (5) (methiodide of 31- pyridyl-N-methyl-2-pyrrole). Distillation of this with calcium oxide gave nicotyrine (6). Selective hydrogenation of the pyrrole nucleus with a palladium-carbon catalyst converted nicotyrine (6) to nicotine with about a 25% yield. PICTET’S SYNTHESIS: Pictet’s classical synthesis involves two steps at high temperatures, one of which is a rearrangement. It cannot therefore be regarded as unambiguous. However, a second synthesis by Spth and Bretschneider involves no rearrangement at high temperature and are thus structurally specific. SPATH’S SYNTHESIS: (1) (Above) was converted into (2) via electrolytic reduction, which on treatment with potassium and methyl sulphate gave (3) (N-methylpyrrolidone). Ethyl nicotinate was then condensed with (3) in the presence of sodium ethanoate and the resulting -pyridyl-1- -(N1 – methyl-?1- pyrrolidonyl) – ketone (4) was hydrolysed with fuming hydrochloric acid at 130. The derived amino ketone (5) was reduced with zinc and sodium hydroxide to the corresponding alcohol (6), which was converted to nicotine on treatment with hydrogen iodide and potassium hydroxide. A third synthesis of nicotine by Craig was also carried out: CRAIG’S SYNTHESIS: Nicotinonitrile (1) (above) was reacted with ?- ethoxypropylmagnesium bromide. The product of the reaction (2) (3-pyridyl-?-ethoxypropylketone) formed an oxime (3), which was reduced to an amino derivative (4). On heating to 150-155 with 48% hydrobromic acid this was converted to nornicotine (5), which in turn was methylated to nicotine. The pyridine ring in nicotine is derived from nicotine acid, which itself is derived from aspartic acid and glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate: The remaining steps en route to nicotine are shown below: Caffeine The purine system occurs widely in nature. Two purines, adenine and guanine, are constituents of the nucleic acids; adenine is a component of coenzymes I and II, of flavin adenine dinucleotide and of adenosine with 3 distinguished compounds: caffeine, theophylline and theobromine. They are physiologically active constituents of coffee, cocoa, and tea. The compounds have different biochemical effects, and are present in different ratios in different plant sources. These compounds are very similar and differ only by the presence of methyl groups in two positions of chemical structure as shown below: They are easily oxidised to uric acid and other methyluric acids, which are also similar in chemical stucture. CAFFEINE – 1,3,7- trimethylxanthine SOURCES – Coffee, tea, cola nuts, mate, guarana EFFECTS – Stimulant of the central nervous system, cardiac muscle and respiratory system, diuretic, delays fatigue. THEOPHYLLINE – 1,3 – dimethylxanthine SOURCES – Tea EFFECTS – Cardiac stimulant, smooth muscle relaxant, diuretic, vasodilator. THEOBROMINE – 3,7- dimethylxanthine SOURCES – Principle alkaloid of the cocoa bean (1.5-3%), cola nuts and tea. EFFECTS – Diuretic, smooth muscle relaxant, cardiac stimulant, vasodilator. Theophylline has a stronger effect on heart and breathing than caffeine. For this reason it is the drug of choice in home remedies for treating asthma, bronchitis and emphysema. Theophylline found in medicine is made from extracts from coffee or tea. Theobromine is weaker than caffeine and theophylline – has one tenth of the stimulating effect. When isolated in pure form, caffeine is a white crystalline powder that tastes very bitter. Recreationally, it is used to provide a ‘boost in energy’ or a feeling of heightened alterness. It’s often used to stay awake longer. Caffeine inhibits the action of an enzyme, phosphodiesterase, whose job it is to inactive a molecule called cyclic adenosine monophosphate (AMP). Cyclic -AMP is involved in the formation of glucose in the bloodstream. Deactivation of phosphodiesterase by caffeine frees cyclic – AMP to do its job, more glucose appears, and we feel more energetic. Caffeine is an addictive drug. Among its many actions it operates using the same mechanisms that amphetamines, cocaine and heroin use to stimulate the brain. Caffeine’s effects are milder but it is manipulating the same channels and that it is one of the things that give caffeine its addictive qualities. It is one of the most widely used drugs. More than 90% of the population Britain consume it everyday and its long-term effects are of current interest. Purines are usually synthesised by Traube’s method in which a 4, 5 – diaminopyrimidine is treated with formic acid or, better, sodium dithioformate.4, 5- diaminopyrimidines are themselves obtained from 4- aminopyrimidines by nitrosation followed by reduction or via diazonium coupling of activated methylene compounds followed by cyclisation and reduction. Two examples are as follows: Uric acid (an 8-Hydroxypurine) are made using ethyl chloroformate in place of formic acid: Uric acid is then the starting material for other purines: Summary The term alkaloid refers to any Nitrogen containing compound extracted from plants, although the word is used loosely and some compounds of non-plant origin are also commonly known as alkaloids. The name is derived from their characteristic basic properties (alkali-like), which are induced by the lone-pair of electrons on nitrogen. The basic nature of the alkaloids, in conjunction with their particular three-dimensional architecture, gives rise to often-potent physiological activities, e.g. the narcotics morphine and heroin. The laboratory synthesis of an alkaloid can be a challenging problem. The goal nowadays is not only to synthesise the natural product, but also to do so from simple molecules by a short elegant pathway. Such syntheses have practical importance because many alkaloids are desirable drugs. Large amounts of these alkaloids are often difficult to obtain from natural sources. A simple synthesis can provide an alternative supply of such a drug. The 19th century was the heyday for structural studies on the alkaloids and the 20th century was notable for the large number of elegant syntheses that have been accomplished. Virtually all of the major alkaloids have now been synthesised.

Swot Analysis College

SWOT Analysis Lauren Fischer October 29, 2012. SWOT Analysis Strengths: Location Low student to teacher ratio Weaknesses: Crime College Mission/Vision Lack of Diversity Threats: Economy Peer Insitutions Opportunities: Economy External fundraising efforts Strengths: Location Low student to teacher ratio Weaknesses: Crime College Mission/Vision Lack of Diversity Threats: Economy Peer Insitutions Opportunities: Economy External fundraising efforts Strengths: Location The college may bene? t most from it’s location.The location may have little to do with the inner workings of the college, but it is one of the most attractive features about the college. The campus aesthetics, historical surroundings and proximity to the beach makes it an attractive location for prospective college students and helps increase enrollment. The quality of life here is rated highly which not only draws students to enroll, but leads to high retention rates amongst the student body. Student to Teacher Rat io The student faculty ratio stands at 16:9:1 which allows an intimate learning environment for the students.The The faculty is bright and genuinely care about the students. Students get to experience an availability to their professors and a personalized learning experience. This bene? ts the students and allows them to excel academically throughout their time at the college of charleston and establishes a mutual respect and good relationship between the students and faculty. Students come here seeking that level of attention and leave the school receiving more than they expected. Weaknesses Crime The College lies in the heart of downtown Charleston, which neighbors North Charleston.North Charleston is regarded as one of the most dangerous cities in the nation. Crime draws bad publicity and damages student morale. While many students who are expecting an urban environment and have an understanding that there are dangers with living in a city, the crime level may hinder perspective students from enrolling. Theft is an issue on campus for many of the students. College Mission/Vision According to Charleston’s strategic plan for the year of 2012, the college has failed to assert itself in the community. Internal and external constituents are often computed about the College’s missions, questioning whether it is the state’s liberal art’s college or a comprehensive university, private or public, a teaching or a research institution. † (Strategic Plan, p. 2) Two- thirds of the students at the College of Charleston are earning degrees in the liberal arts and sciences and most of the faculty and students regard the school as a liberal arts college. The state of South Carolina considers College of Charleston to be one of the ten comprehensive institutions.Lack of Diversity The College of Charleston has increased it’s academic quality and quality of life signi? cantly over the years. â€Å" It’s student body remains overw helmingly white, female, middle class. The college’s current strategic plan says that percentage of students from diverse ethnic groups at the College of Charleston is the lowest of any of the state’s four-year colleges and universities. The lack of diversity may hinder enrollments, especially those students looking for a unique urban experience. The school should try to develop strategies or programs that might attract more students from diverse backgrounds.Opportunities Economy While for many reasons the economy can be seen as a threat, and in today’s world it is a threat for many colleges across the nation, it is an opportunity in disguise. Because of the economic downfall, many adults have been let go from there jobs. Many people who have become unemployed over the last few years have made the decision to return to school. Enrollments are up, and people are ? nishing their degrees and receiving new ones. In result, the college is receiving more money from ne w enrollments and helping adults continue their future.External Fundraising Efforts The college has a strong presence and history in the city of charleston. The school needs to utilize that presence and seek out external fundraising efforts and support. According to College of Charleston’s strategic plan, the college’s external resources have been historically weak and remain signi? cantly behind the level of of success in peer institutions. There seems to be an issue of underfunding throughout the college, but increased relations with external resources can enhance endowment resources and continue on with future growth of the college.Threats Economy While the current economy could lead to possible opportunities for the college, it stands as an obvious threat the the college and its operations. State appropriation combined with other operating revenues make up only 20 percent of the budget, making the College Substantially dependent on tuition revenues. The college can not depend on state sources alone to fund future growth. In our current economy, people are pinching their pockets and saving money in any way that they can.In result, many are opting out of college or going to community colleges instead. There is a higher demand for loans and scholarships than ever before. The College is currently unable to offer all deserving students competitive scholarships and ? nancial aid. People are hurting everywhere, usual donors and alumni are cutting their costs and providing less donations to the college or none at all. This causes in shortages for technology, facilities, and athletics. Peer Institutions Peer institutions have always and will always be a threat to the College of Charleston.People are going to less urban schools where the cost of living is cheaper. The College is not well known for their sports and does not have a football team, so many schools with strong athletics draw in more students who desire the camaraderie big athletics brings to a university. Salaries and bene? ts for faculty and staff has not kept pace with our competitors. This could cause lowered retention and recruitment among the staff and faculty at the college and College Of Charleston could risk losing their strong reputation.All of these weaknesses in the college’s internal and external workings stand as a bene? t for other institutions and pose as a threat to the success of the College of Charleston. Sources: The College of Charleston http://www. cofc. edu/strategicplan/ The Princeton Review http://www. princetonreview. com/schools/college/CollegeAcademics. aspx? iid=1022 883 College Prowler http://collegeprowler. com/college-of-charleston/ Post & Courier http://www. postandcourier. com/article/20121016/PC05/121019443/1010/conde-nast-charleston-top-tourist-cityin-the-world

Kerouac’s America: Jazz and Life on the Road Essay

Jack Kerouac’s On the Road portrays the entire spectrum of American experience- from the migrant worker to the deranged artist to the Midwestern farmer. All of these discordant figures he blends together into one tapestry, creating a picture of the United States that, even if sometimes bleak, is always sympathetic. Kerouac’s vision of America is best reflected through his observations on jazz and life on the road. Jazz has often been called the only truly American art form and its place in On the Road is appropriately significant. When Kerouac writes of be-bop jam sessions he describes these events as decidedly more violent, more passionate, and more alive than the typical concert. In one instance, a saxophonist’s solo drives Dean Moriarty into a trance, â€Å"clapping his hands, [and] pouring sweat on the man’s keys†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (198). Sal and Dean use jazz as a means of breaking through the staid conformity of 1950s America, feeding off its infectious energy. Having grown intolerant of dull, prosaic experience Sal proclaims, â€Å"the only people for me are the mad ones, the ones who are mad to live, mad to talk, mad to be saved†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (5). On the Road itself is the product of such a creative frenzy, full of wild run-on sentences and disjointed syntax. The urgency apparent in Jazz is also at the root of Sal and Dean’s travels across the country. They roam from coast to coast oftentimes without any concrete motivation besides the joy of the ride and an innate restlessness. They seek to somehow transcend the physical world through drugs or sex or non-stop conversation, but never quite reach the â€Å" ‘IT,’† of which Dean speaks to Sal. Jazz does allow them to approach something near this quasi-religious transcendence and thus, they enshrine jazz musicians as saints, or even gods. In one instance, Dean adamantly refers to the blind pianist George Shearing as â€Å" ‘Old God Shearing! ’† and to his empty piano seat as â€Å" ‘God’s empty chair† (128). The Jazz clubs operate as secular churches for Sal and his companions, places where spirituality can be revitalized and restored. The â€Å"Beat† figures portrayed in On the Road do not seek to destroy social and religious traditions, as many would suggest, but rather to restore some of their soulfulness, their purity. Jazz, at its best, serves as medium to help usher in this new paradigm. Kerouac asserts that, in a way, America’s true religion is its music. Nowhere in On the Road is the American scene painted as well as on Sal’s first experience with life on the road. That initial experience, as well as those that follow it, lends Sal a deeper insight into a set of truly American types. He meets with drifters, farm boys, and migrant workers hitching a ride on the back of a pickup truck. The feeling of easy camaraderie between the fellow hitchhikers is nowhere to be found in contemporary America- the farm boys’ call â€Å" ‘sroom for everybody’† recalls a much different time (22). Kerouac’s America moves not only at the break neck pace of a Charlie Parker saxophone solo, but also slows to the pace of characters like Mississippi Gene whose â€Å"language [is] melodious and slow† (23). Whereas life in the city is characterized by loud jazz played late into the night, life on the road is filled with slow, melodious voices like that of Mississippi Gene. Mississippi Gene also brings out the dark side of life on the road, telling Sal that he’ll â€Å" ‘folly a man down an alley’† if he ever needs money (23), though most of the characters Sal meets are described as â€Å"grateful and gracious† (28). By hitchhiking, Sal is able to form genuine bonds with folks just struggling to get by, and this sense of egalitarian fellowship pervades his journey. The road not only allows Sal to meet people he might not ordinarily come in contact with, but also to gain more knowledge of himself. When Dean cries out at the beginning of one journey that â€Å"we should realize what it would mean to us to understand  that we’re not really  worried about anything,† one senses that traveling, for Sal and Dean, is as much about letting go of yourself as it is about getting to your destination. Sal, however, never seems to achieve this letting go, weighed down by a cry of â€Å"What gloom! † (52). But there are moments in which he approaches that ecstatic state Dean refers to as â€Å"IT,† as in a conversation on one cross-country trip with Dean, where Sal describes â€Å"our final excited joy in talking and living† (209). But of course, On the Road portrays experience much more varied than pure wide-eyed ecstasy. The aforementioned dark side of life on the road looms everywhere in the novel and extends further than just the possibility of being mugged or assaulted. There is also the problem of too much freedom- the possibility that one will roam so much that one will permanently lose one’s center. Dean’s New York apartment contains â€Å"the same battered trunk stuck out from under the bed, ready to fly,† suggesting that no matter where he goes, his soul is always on the road (250). One begins to wonder if Sal and Dean’s journeys are motivated as much by an attempt to escape themselves as to see the country. But though the trials of the road leads Sal at a one point to lament that he’s â€Å"sick and tired of life† (106), he also â€Å"figures the gain† of traveling above its inevitable losses. Here, Kerouac subverts business terminology like â€Å"loss† and â€Å"gain,† and gives them a spiritual import, illuminating the central thrust of On the Road- Americans should start thinking about spiritual profit rather than just economic dominance. Accruing such spiritual profit involves taking risks and being able to embrace the freedom to travel uncharted physical, mental, and spiritual territory. This underlying principle of freedom is at the root of both jazz and life on the road, whether one is exploring a landscape or the nuances of a musical phrase. In On the Road, Jack Kerouac wrote of an America that celebrated these freedoms.

Global Business in Emerging Regions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words - 2

Global Business in Emerging Regions - Essay Example Ltd (OGES) Present market: USA and European market Emerging market: overall Africa and especially Nigeria Cause of moving out: Over saturation in the present market and poor economy Advantage: Business expansion and market diversification Main challenge: Poor infrastructure and political problem Entry strategy: agency formation and hire- purchase strategy News Link: The assignment has taken a clue from news with the headline â€Å"Africa’s Richest Man Bets Big on Oil Refinery† published in Wall Street Journal. (http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304607104579210322347689090). The news tells that a Nigerian man Aliko Dangote, the richest man in entire Africa for last two decades is going to step in oil refinery business. The estimated investment is $9 billion for coming two years to construct the largest private refinery in Nigeria. It is expected to produce more oil compared to any African country. PART A Company & Industry Analysis Company overview: In this case it is supposed that the certain organization (OGES) is a manufactures of tool and machineries, which are used in oil refinery business. The organization manufactures valves, liquid level gauges, digital flow meters, intube exchangers, electrically heated exchangers and many more equipments used in refinery facilities. Basically it is an ancillary company of oil and gas exploration and refining sector. Industry/Sector Overview: Many big companies across the globe are present this business. Companies which are making equipments for oil and gas refineries like Armstrong Engineering Associates, Inc. John C. Ernst Co., Inc and Shangqiu Jinyuan Machinery Equipment Co Ltd. are the competitors of the business. The level of competition is fair and health. These peer organizations have an association in the form of chamber of commerce to discuss and address the sector specific problems. The company has operation in the US and European market. Saturation in the Present Market: It is known that the US and European market is highly saturated and overcrowded. Manufactures from other areas like Chinese and Indian companies are giving tough competition in the US and European market. More over the economies of these two areas are not growing. So much so that dome countries are reporting negative figures. The problem has started in 2008 with the initiation of sub prime crisis. It is nearly six years; the problem has not been solved. It is very difficult to run a business in such a country which is not growing. Limited expansion opportunities and limited marketing scopes restrict the business to grow further. But if a business is not growing it is actually lagging behind its competitors because they are growing. So if a particular market or region is not working favorably, it is advisable to focus on other areas. Market diversification and product diversification should be the regular agendas for a successfully running business over a long period of time. Identificatio n of Emerging Market: But it not only diversification it wants to spread its wings in others areas as well. In this contest, Nigeria, a Sub-Saharan-African country is considered as the destination. Because the organization thinks that Africa in general and Nigeria in specific can be viewed as the emerging market. The growth of overall African economy is much better than the US and European economy. It is always advisable to bet on something which is rising or growing rather that which is facing

Electronic and Internet Public Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Electronic and Internet Public Relations - Essay Example It has now become a necessity to integrate computer-mediated communication (CMC) with the PR mix of an organization. In the field of PR, internet makes it possible to communicate with various key constituencies without the message being altered by the media. The traditional channels are eliminated and direct communication with the audience is possible. The proliferation of the internet has allowed easier and faster access to information by the people as more than 50% homes in the US and the UK are internet-connected (Holtz, 2006). The internet has moved beyond a one-way channel for information and the speed of the internet, interactivity and the crossing of national borders make it highly attractive to public relations practitioners as a communication strategy tool (Hurme, 2001). Internet is different from World Wide Web (WWW) because in the WWW it is possible to place the advertising material like the company balance sheets or annual reports or new releases (Jo & Jung, 2005). WWW can be used as a distribution channel to reduce or eliminate distribution costs for products. Consumers can browse through the website and extract information before purchasing a product or service but this is only a one-way communication. The Web has been bifurcated into three different braches due to the social and technological changes that have taken place. These include the reference web which typically gives out information to the surfers, the collaborative web – through which the users share information and becomes a publisher on the net. The third is the broadband web which has turned the web into an audio and video venue (Holtz, 2006). Internet has thus been exploited in different ways to build and enhance the PR that an organization wants to build. Internet as a tool for PR can enhance media relations, employee communication, government relations and customer relations, due to its interactive function

Political and Cultural Consequences of Neo-Liberalism Essay

Political and Cultural Consequences of Neo-Liberalism - Essay Example This theory suggests that individual entrepreneurial freedom can be achieved inside an institutional framework that is distinguished by strong private property rights, free markets, and free trade. Neo-liberalism, as a theory, requires that the role of the state should be to create and protect the already developed institutional framework. The state, therefore, should set up all the necessary mechanisms such as the military, defence, police, and legal structures to secure such institutions. When this is done, the state would have guaranteed property rights and proper functioning markets. Furthermore, the law of neo-liberalism states that if markets are nonexistent, then the government must create them (Harvey, 2005:1). The state is not supposed to go beyond creation of markets and necessary institutions. This means that the state should not interfere with the markets once created. It should keep a minimal role because according to this theory, the government does not have sufficient knowledge on market undertakings. Moreover, some people in the market may influence state policy for their own gains. Deregulation of market functioning, privatisation of companies, and removal of the government interference have been the strongest terms of neo-liberalism in the world today (Foucault, 2008:2). A neoliberal government is thus committed to instituting and favouring strong individual property rights, effective rule of law for all its citizens, and freely enabled trade. According to the theory, these are the fundamental institutional structures regarded indispensable to guarantee freedom of the market. The market then requires a legal structure that is liberally bargained in terms of contractual efforts among the market players. These contractual obligations between individuals, would lead to the protection of individual rights to freedom of operation, right to expression, and choice. According to the theory of liberalism, therefore, the state has to use its monopoly po wer to supervise and oversee the markets at all costs. On the other hand, while the state ensures individual rights in the marketplace, each person is held accountable and liable for their own wellbeing. The principle of neo-liberalism in many countries has extended into economical, political and social-cultural spheres (Leys, 2001:14). Having neo-liberalism defined in the above discussion, this paper seeks to unveil the political and cultural consequences of neo-liberalism. First, this paper puts the political consequences of neo-liberalism into perspective. Therefore, the political consequences of the theory of liberalism as destroying the global democracy, governance, and security of individuals take centre stage. The political neoliberals have distorted the fundamental pillars of global social organisation. Political neo-liberalism is the interaction between the state organs and individuals to influence choices. It is a form of social structure, which moulds the behaviours and a ctions of individuals. Neo-liberalism as a subset of globalisation has led to neoliberal politics that have caused massive deprivation among the poor in many regions around the world. Moreover, neo-liberalism policies qualify as both positive and negative depending of the degree of application (Leys, 2001:14). Neo-liberalism in most parts of the world has led to the formation of strong fiscal policies. Many governments have had to practice strict criteria in the effort to limit budget deficiencies and debts. Through this practice, most of the states have given priorities to public expenditure. Such that, far from subsidies and other

Contracting and Procurement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Contracting and Procurement - Essay Example The second type of contract is the cost-reimbursement contract wherein all incurred costs that lie with a pre-determined ceiling are agreed to be paid. 1. Hiring of technicians to install and configure the software for a particular environment is indeed a critical task. While hiring people for this purpose, it is very much necessary that, the individual is assessed on different parameters which would help determine if that particular person has the capability and knowledge of how to configure and install softwares. It would be an added advantage if the person has a prior experience in the particular task. The type of contract that can be pursued for such kind of purposes can be a cost reimbursement category contract. In the cost reimbursement contract type, specifically a cost type or cost-plus-incentive-fee contract can be opted for (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2008). In these types of contracts payments of all incurred costs which range within a predetermined total estimated cost are paid to the people who are hired. 2. Whenever a training entity is hired for the purpose of teaching Project Management students about the techniques of using the newly installed software, it would definitely be for a particular duration, for instance a stipulated number of days or months. Cost sharing contract is the appropriate choice for such tasks. In a cost sharing contract, both the parties involved in the contract share or agree to split the cost of performance. In this case, it can be said that the company would agree to provide the required infrastructure and the trainer who is being hired for the purpose of training would agree to supply the course curriculum and instruction manuals etc. 3. Buying a new server and software to run the tool and house the project database involves identifying and locating both hardware and software. Identifying both hardware and software service providers involves market research. If a market research is done, then obviously various quotes would be obtained from different vendors from which the company would select the best optimum vendor depending on the quote and place the order. These kinds of contracts can be executed by cost reimbursement contracts and in this specifically, cost-plus-fixed-fee. According to the Cost-plus-fixed-fee contracts, all incurred costs are paid apart from a fixed fee which is not supposed to change all through the contract. 4. Hiring tool usage experts to transfer knowledge to the student PMs about the use of the tool on the job for the first 60 days after going "live" clearly states that it is for a stipulated period i.e. for 60 days. Here, the hiring of an individual is done for a particular time period. Hence, in this case it would be appropriate that the person is hired on the basis of an hourly rate i.e. a particular amount for the number of hours worked. The type of contract that can be pursued in this case would be cost type contract in which payments of all incurred costs which range within a predetermined total estimated cost are paid to the people who are hired. 5. Plan for the removal and disposal of the no longer to be used scheduling tool software and hardware also falls into the same category as to where a person is hired for the installation of the software. The person who

Smart Green Technologies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Smart Green Technologies - Research Paper Example Conservation of energy achieves this role of repairing. Imperatives responsible for controlling energy consumptions utilizes all environmental aspects are being by the help of ICT data centers. Opportunities that can be offered by ICT in helping economies respond well to the drastic effects of climate change are coming to the limelight. These opportunities will make the environment smart with low amounts of pollutants like carbon in the air. Designing of low cost equipment’s that provide value to the end users proves smart. Such equipment that develops from various technologies forms the discussion of this paper (Astorino n.d). Thermostats control the turning off and on of both air and temperature conditions, in businesses and homes. Some people still retain thermostats that tune for the same temperatures throughout the day. Most people do also use digital programmable thermostats that can set for different time periods at different temperatures. These settings last during the day and night. Thermostats whose temperature adjustment settings satisfy the interests and desires of all consumers are now available. Nest learnable thermostat is one such example. Nest learnable thermostat programs itself at different time intervals. It has a patented auto way feature. Auto way is a feature that uses a sensor which keeps track of all activities within the house. It monitors the heating or cooling needed as one moves around the home. When activity ceases for few hours, the machine goes into auto way mode. This turns the temperature settings to either a maximum or minimum that one has preset into its program. The nest learnable thermostat monitors a home at a 150 degree wide angle view sensor. It is in use at an average of nine homes out of ten. The machine is flying off the shelf at a high rate with a friendly cost of $249.00. It sets home temperatures to save money by at least 20% of the expected costs (Thiele 2-10). Apart from programming

My Perception of John Keats Ode to a Nightingale Essay

My Perception of John Keats Ode to a Nightingale - Essay Example To my mind, this poem is an interlacement of themes, symbols, and mysterious images accompanied by perfect verse forms. My goal in this paper is to express my perception of the poem in terms of its themes and symbolism. Thematically, â€Å"Ode to a Nightingale† explores a few directions. First of all, there is the author’s changing reality. To be more precise, real world somehow turns into the world of fantasy. Sometimes the divide is so slight in the poem that it is hard to pinpoint which reality the speaker is in. On a closer look, however, it becomes clear that by the fourth stanza the speaker has already united with the nightingale in a fantasy world which is lush, as well as dark. In particular, having heard the song of the nightingale, the author wishes to taste fine French wine in order to experience such condition of mind that will provide him with enjoyment of the nightingale: â€Å"that I might drink, and leave the world unseen, And with thee fade away into t he forest dim† ( Keats, â€Å"Ode to a Nightingale†, lines 19-20). Still, it crosses the poet’s mind that wine is not necessary to be with the bird, so he uses his metaphorical wings of poetry to escape to the forest. Away! away! for I will fly to thee, Not charioted by Bacchus and his pards, But on the viewless wings of Poesy, Though the dull brain perplexes and retards: Already with thee! tender is the night (Keats, â€Å"Ode to a Nightingale†, lines 36, 37). Next, in this changing realities context, the author is taken close to death experience in his mysterious journey. Yet, the bird flies away and this seems to breaks the spell. Throughout the poem, one may feel the author’s changed mental state, which he says is rooted in his natural condition rather than intoxication by some drug or alcohol. Furthermore, the theme of happiness/unhappiness is evident in the poem. Specifically, we get to know that the speaker feels extremely unhappy about his l ife burden placed on him by his age and time. He even expresses his hatred at the very thought that young and handsome people of the Romantic Movement will once become old and disabled. However, the author claims that what he feels is happiness for the singing nightingale, which makes his heart ache: 'Tis not through envy of thy happy lot, But being too happy in thine happiness, That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees, In some melodious plot Of beechen green, and shadows numberless, Singest of summer in full-throated ease. (Keats, â€Å"Ode to a Nightingale†, lines 5-10). Another theme to reflect upon is the relationship between the man and Mother Nature. The author feels admiration for a tiny bird that represents Nature – everlasting and self-renewing. In particular, the nightingale is perceived as an embodiment of nature which is able to restore its natural cycles of both life and death, and thus stays immortal. Indeed, it seems the author’s perception of N ature is rather mysterious and even magical. So he grants some magical powers to the subject of his admiration. In particular, the nightingale singing on a tree is compared to a â€Å"dryad†, which is a spirit of the forest. To add, Nature leaves the speaker’s imagination spellbound and this thought is developed further in the poem. To illustrate, O for a draught of vintage! that hath been Cool'd a long age in the deep-delved earth, Tasting of Flora and the country-green (†¦) (Keats, â€Å"Ode to a Nightingale†, line 13) Symbolically, the image of nightingale is quite

Education in the United States Essay Example for Free

Education in the United States Essay India has made large strides in educating its population of more than a billion people, yet a lot remains to be done. It is commonplace now that education is both intrinsically valuable and also instrumental for economic well-being, and this is true for individuals and entire nations. No country in the world has been able to develop without the spread of mass education. An educated population is a prerequisite for take-off into high economic growth. Table 1 in the appendix shows literacy rates for India as a whole and by sex. It also shows the decadal rates of change from 1901 to the present. 2 Literacy rates have increased for both males and females, and though the latter continues to lag behind the former, there has been a narrowing of the male-female gap in literacy: from 24. 8% in 1991 to 21. 7% in 2001. In 2001, the absolute number of illiterates declined historically for the first time by nearly 32 million. In terms of state-wise performance, Kerala continues to occupy first rank as it has done historically; on the other hand, densely populated states like Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar are yet to overcome their educational inertia. 3 The average figures for India as a whole hide a great deal of variation among states. Table 2 in the appendix provides literacy rates for states for the years 1991 and 2001, for the population as a whole, by sex and also provides the decadal rate of change. In 2001, Kerala, Maharashtra and Himachal Pradesh had more than 75% of their population of 7+ years literate. On the other hand, even in 2001, less than half of Bihar’s population of seven years and above was literate with female literacy rate only 33. 6%. In terms of zones, states in the South and West outperform states in the North and East. 2. Primary Education Primary education refers to the education of children between the ages 6-11 years (grades 1-5). Universalization of Primary Education (UPE) is a constitutional provision in India and there has been a steady expansion in the spread of primary education since Indian independence in 1947. The Indian educational system is the second largest in the world after China. In 2001-02, there were nearly 0. 66 million primary schools in India 1 This study has been undertaken as part of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals Project. 2 Before the 1991 census, only those belonging to the age-group 0-4 years were excluded from the population in order to compute literacy rates and the basis of the computation was the entire population. From the 1991 census onward, literacy rates were computed based on the population aged 7+ years and above. 3 In Bihar, Nagaland and Manipur as well as Delhi and Chandigarh, the absolute number of illiterates has increased in the 1990s. 4 providing access to 84% of habitations with a primary school located within a distance of one kilometer. Between 1997 and 2002, the gross primary school enrolment rate4 for India was 111 for males and 92 for females. The net primary school enrolment rate5 on the other hand was only 78 for males and 64 for females. The net primary school attendance rate between 1999 and 2002 was 79 for males and 73 for females. However, of the children who entered primary school, only 68% reached grade 5 between 1995 and 1999 (UNICEF, 2004). Table 3 provides data on gross primary school enrolments by sex between 1950-51 and 2001-2002. As can be seen from the table there has been a steady increase in the numbers of boys and girls attending primary school over time. In Table 4, state-wise enrolment of boys and girls as a percentage of their age-group is provided for 1997-1998. Girls’ enrolment has been steadily increasing over time and in 2001-02, nearly 45% of girls in the age-group 6-11 were enrolled in school. These statistics are heartening because at least until the 1990s, one of the most dismal aspects of India’s education system was the large percentage of the population in the younger age groups that were out of school. Socio-economic disparities Despite the strong constitutional backing for the provision of primary education in India6 and its expansion over time, the system is characterized not only by low achievements but also by large unevenness of achievements. Huge gaps remain between rural and urban areas, and the probability of getting any education at all sharply depends on gender, caste and income. Women, scheduled castes and tribes and the poor are faced with formidable barriers when it comes to getting basic education. Of the 200 million children in the age group 6-14, it is estimated that 59 million are out of school. Of these 35 million are girls and 24 million are boys (Ministry of Human Development, GOI). Apart from socio-economic determinants, the educational infrastructure and the management and the governance of the educational system in India are far from efficient or sufficient. The government is the largest provider of education in India with only about 10% of primary schools owned by the private sector. 7 The quality of education provided by the public education system is low which translates into low educational abilities even for those who are able to complete primary education cycle. Moreover, there is a lot of ‘waste’ in the educational system with dropout rates as high as 40% for the country as a whole and in some Indian states, they are as high as 75%. Though the number of primary 4 Gross primary school enrolment rate is computed as the number of children enrolled in primary school regardless of age divided by the population of that age group. 5 Net primary school enrolment rate is computed as the number of children in that age group enrolled in primary school divided by the population of that age group. 6 In 2002, the Supreme Court of India decreed that free primary education was a constitutional right. 7 Around 3% of private schools are aided by the government, which makes government intervention in the education sector even greater. 5 schools in the country increased, more than 1 lakh8 habitations still do not have access to a primary school within a distance of one kilometer. Teacher-pupil ratios are inadequate: less than 2 teachers are available in rural areas to teach a class size of around 100 students. Teacher motivation and teaching incentives are also very weak. India perhaps has the highest rate of teacher truancy in the world. Poverty and Education. Empirical evidence strongly shows that, both at the level of the household as well as at the level of the country, there is a positive relationship between income (and wealth) and educational attainment. More income simply means more resources available to spend on the acquisition of education. With more than 250 million people in India living on less than a $1 a day, poverty remains a major barrier to educational access. Although education is provided ‘free’ by the government, the cost of uniforms, textbooks and transportation costs are beyond the reach of many households (Tilak, 2004). Added to these direct costs are the indirect (opportunity) costs of wage/domestic labor which children perform and the costs of acquiring education become considerable for households. Graphs 1 and 2 in the appendix show simple regressions of literacy rates for sixteen states against state poverty rates and state per capita income for 2001. As is expected, literacy rates decline with poverty and rise with per capita incomes. State per capita incomes seem to explain literacy rates better than poverty rates. Filmer and Pritchett (2001) using Demographic Health Survey data for India find that the gap in enrolment between the highest and the lowest wealth class is as much as 52 percentage points. Gupta (2003) using the 52nd round of National Sample Survey data finds that the percentage of people who have completed five years of schooling declines as one descends consumption deciles. In the lowest consumption decile, the proportion of people who have not completed the primary school cycle is greater than 80%. 9 While poverty status and income class are strong determinants of who goes to school and for how long, they do not make up the whole story. Indian states of Kerala and Himachal Pradesh even with fewer resources at their disposal have been able to achieve much better educational and health outcomes compared to rich states such as Punjab and Haryana in India. This is true even when we look at cross-country outcomes. For example, Sri Lanka and Botswana do much better in education and health terms than would be predicted based on their level of resources; the Latin American countries do much worse given their resources (Mehrotra and Jolly, 1998). 8 One lakh is equal to 100,000. 9. These graphs are meant to be illustrative of the association between resources and education and do not claim any direction of causality. The relationship between resources and educational attainment is bidirectional. The poor cannot afford schooling. With little human capital, the opportunities to escape persistent poverty are very restricted and the poor can be trapped in a low education, low income vicious cycle across generations. A large literature has analyzed both theoretically and empirically persistence of poverty inter-generationally due to lack of resources to invest in education.

Photography is an art

Photography is an art Photography is an art that took many years and efforts of many individuals to perfect. Many different people in many different fields contributed to this light writing. Chemists, artists, inventors, and engineers all lending a crafting hand to the art. Photography can be defined as the art of producing images of objects on photosensitive surfaces. It is both an art and a science. As an art it expresses personal vision, and as a science it relies on technology. The word photography came from the Greek word phos, meaning light and graphos, meaning writing, which literally means light writing. Light writing is an emerging form of stop motion animation wherein still images, captured using the technique known as light painting or light drawing, are put in sequence thereby creating the optical illusion of movement for the viewer. In order to get started in creating light writing you will need a DSLR( Digital Single Lens Reflex ) camera, an ordinary DSC( Digital Still Camera ) will not do b ecause light writing requires a camera that can be placed in the B bulb shutter position, a remote shutter release and a tripod. All you need to get started is your camera and an understanding of how to control shutter speed. Light writing demands longer exposures of anywhere from several seconds to many minutes. Another technique is to use the multiple exposure features on a camera and shoot a series of 30 seconds to many minutes. A tripod will help you compose the shot and keep the camera still, and one or more lights will add to the fun. Light writing photography is a form of stop motion animation which requires the user to find a place, set the camera, and to take the picture. To create light writing, you or a friend will stand in front of the camera with a light in a dark room or place. The place should be dark otherwise the essence of light writing is useless. It is your choice on whether to bring a friend or not because the purpose on bringing a friend is to hold the camera for you, but if you have a tripod you can do it by yourself. In order to set the camera into its rightful position you need to find a place where in the camera will not move, the best places are on a still table, chair or anything that is stable, but to get the best results you need to place the camera on a tripod. After which you need to adjust the setting, the exposure should be around 10-30 seconds or longer depending on the design you want to portray. Set the camera to about ISO 100, and close your aperture as much as possible. This prevents over exposure. If there is still too much light, you might have to use a filter for better results. In order to take the picture you need to find a source of light. Finding a source of light is easy, just about any light will work, but the best tolls have tight focused light that lets you create precise patterns. LED flashlights are among the best for light writing, for they are compact, super bright and come in all sorts of fun colors. Glow sticks are also perfect for light writing images. Before moving and waving the light you need to count off to your partner so that he/she will click on the capture button in the exact time you wave your light, but if you are using a tripod you will need to count off by yourself according to how many seconds you placed on the timer. Once the capture button is clicked begin moving or waving the light to draw shapes and patterns in the air. If you move too quickly enough, the camera will not record a person, only the patterns of light you leave behind. The camera may also record the background if it is spotlighted by other light sources, such as t he moon or a streetlight. I challenge everyone who is interested in light writing photography to create masterpieces in light, to go beyond the expected to create more designs or ideas, to keep on practicing until the perfect design is reached, and to share their knowledge to the people around them to continue the art of light writing. Now, after reading my essay, would you too be interested in light writing photography, to share and to have fun with the picture you make with your friends and family? I recommend people who take photography or to those who are interested in art to take light writing photography to the next level, to improve their skills and share it to other people so that the next generation will already have an idea on how light writing works and to continue the art of light writing.

Corporate Social Responsibility for Competitive Advantage

Corporate Social Responsibility for Competitive Advantage Introduction The famous Nobel Prize winning economist Milton Friedman who once said that there is one and only one social responsibility of business to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits (Friedman 1970). Friedman outlines views which are characterized in two perspectives with regards to social responsibility, on one hand we are aware that attaining profits is one of the primary objectives but it doesnt mean that the managers should be focusing only on profits when making business decisions. There are other factors as well, with can be explored around different perspectives related to social responsibility, however focusing on a businesss application of Social responsibility to make decisions and benefiting society (Spector, 2008). Regardless of whether businesses pose any responsibility to partake in social matters is an ever-growing part of the commercial and industrial world, not too long ago businesses were expected to avoid any harm being done, however recently its almost frowned upon if a corporation does not engage in corporate social responsibility (CSR) at all. Qualitative Analysis Forbes published a blog and the writer carried out a survey about consumer behavior, attitudes and awareness about cause marketing, consumer and employee perspectives on CSR issues. The results were that 65% strongly considered leaving their jobs if harm is caused to the environment by the company and a staggering 90% of the consumers said improving society should go hand in hand with achieving company business goal (Epstein-Reeves, 2010). 30,000 consumers were interviewed on Corporate Social Responsibility conducted by Neilson Global this survey ranged across 60 countries with the purpose to understand how invested consumers are with regards to sustainable practices in their daily purchases. It also covered which segments are ecologically and socially supportive in the responsibility efforts made. 50%+ respondents claimed they purchased at a minimum one service or product within the span of six months from a company that is socially responsible. Out of every 10 respondents, four said they have made socially and ethical purchases, these respondents were from North America and Europe (Nielson, 2014) Per Net impacts what workers want report, from the sample size, 45% of the staff agreed to have 15% reduction in pay that has a positive environmental or social effect. A further 51% of employees claim that helping make a better world working towards contribution to society are fundamental to the working society (Heldrich et al. 2012). Criticism however of business extends much further in that much more is expected of corporations today, with realization of ineffective government solutions on a social responsibility platform, for this and other reasons, in developed countries at least. Private sectors organizations are baring the burden of this responsibility to solve these social problems, let alone the directly responsible cases and matters it must rectify ie. Pollution, health and safety of products produced (smith, 2013) Discussion It is clear that with increased public and media pressure CSR is a matter of competitive advantage. From a Moral stand point, the argument is that with all the money businesses have as well as the power they possess to make societal changes, and are now obligated to do so, which seems to be the view of supporters of CSR which is similar to Crowther et all (2008) when he explained in his book that its the obligation of the firm to consider and include the society within its decision making and business operations. However, some argue that large companies have the only responsibility to maximize profits and have no grounds in socially moral matters otherwise, this may seem like a heartless view, whereas the supporters of CSR argue that charitable initiatives tend to shift the focus away from organizations harmful and unethical practices (Tran, 2015) The issue is then how does a business engage in actions that benefit everyone, this is a very difficult task however business managers must be able to balance these competing interests. Shareholders are those individuals to invest their money in the company in exchange for a percentage of ownership and typically voting rights, this makes shareholders the actual owners of the company and shareholders dont necessarily have the time or expertise to make a big decisions they elect the board of directors corporate officers to manage the day-to-day operations and send shareholders who again are the owners to make the decisions is the responsibility of the corporate officers to make decisions that are in the best interests of the shareholders and what is more important to shareholders profit so it is the responsibility of the corporate executive to make as much money as possible while of course operating within the rules of the game which refers to establish laws now engaging in what is termed social responsibility is in direct conflict with the shareholder model because it diverse resources in energy is away from profit maximising behaviours Take for instance giving to a charitable organization Freeman isnt arguing against donating to a local church but he is arguing that a business is not the appropriate vehicle to do it. for one finding cars that all of its shareholders agree with would be nothing short of a miracle and secondly by spending energies and resources on social responsibility the businesses giving up those alternatives that it may have otherwise engaged those alternatives may produce more of a benefit for the business. Instead Freeman believed that this is a super super profit maximization is actually making as much money for shareholders as possible and with that extra cash shareholders to donate to whatever organization they wish Freemans views of course represent just one of the two perspectives related to social responsibility the second perspective is known as the stakeholder model and maintains that businesses have a responsibility to not only see profits but also satisfy the interests of multiple sta keholders these stakeholders represent individuals or groups that have an interest in the actions and behavior of the business The conceptual thinking behind the stakeholder model is that for an organization to operate effectively the business managers need to continuously maintain a positive relationship and understanding with the environment and the society within which it operates. Failure to manage and maintain this will effectively cause harm to the reputation of the business in turn hinder their ability to operate. Since all stakeholder have different types of influence on organizations, they are then separated in to primary stakeholders and secondary stakeholders. Primary stakeholders represent those individuals or groups to have a greater influence on the organization they include businesses, customers, employees, suppliers government agencies and the local community (Henriques et al. 1999). These groups are very importance because the business depends of them for long term existence and survival. Consider the impact on the business if suddenly customers seize to buy and products or even the withdrawal of investors. The stakeholder model business managers top priority should be satisfying the various interests of these groups. Common secondary stakeholders like the media maybe not critical in the role played in CSR, however secondary stakeholders do pose strong publish perceptions which can influence the business (Henriques et al. 1999). Case Study 1 British Petroleum The stakeholder group do not carryout business on a regular basis with the company but the information that they communicate impacts the perception of the public drastically. For example, the lengths British Petroleum has taken to repair is damaged image in the light of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill (Spence, 2011). The shareholder and stakeholder models above clarifies the if the objective if profitability, does it make it wrong to proceed with decisions with the profitability objective in mind although one can confidently argue the case that boosting profits by cutting cost didnt benefit BP in the long term. Therefore, conducting oneself as socially responsible is less about being socially responsible and being more profitable in an unadulterated socialistic way as Freidman suggests. On the other hand, Shell does portray and provide good examples of CSR by promoting openness. Shell makes it clear that it is keen to commit to transparency when debating with stakeholders. Tell Shell is a discussion blog or forum which tackles issues and matters relating to Shell on a global scale. The posts are criticizing Shell and at the same time supporting Shell, and regular responses from Shell (Shell, 2017). Once the correct personnel are in place, the identification of which stakeholder representatives should be engaged with, specific types of engagements should be determined and a measurement of social performance. A detailed understanding of the companies current corporate social performance is vital when constructing a plausible CSR strategy with clear objectives and goal (Shell, 2017) Case Study 2 Kraft Heinz Kraft Heinz Co suffered a blow from the media in 2009/10 because of Cadburys hostile acquisition. Even though the unions of Cadbury opposed and fought the case in the anticipation that there will be major job cuts. Following the take-over, many top potions employees and executives quit and as much as 30% of the Cadbury staff were privy to leadership posts (Moeller, 2012). As the acquisition ended, over four hundred job had been made redundant despite the promise of Kraft to retain employees (Stiener 2017), this was seen to be a horrible PR let alone a worst case of CSR for Kraft since Kraft now has been negatively portrayed socially. The rising government and public pressure regarding the manner in which companies operate and the total effect it has on the environment is increasing. Kraft as well as many other snack food companies are under pressure with their role in buying palm oil which has direct and considerable links to deforestation (Allen, 2015). Kraft as all multinationals has strict regulations when in operation, these rules are constantly changing with the evolvement of new contaminants globally, but was forced to recall 11 types of chocolate in Chine when it was reported that 50,000 babies become sick and 4 died by contaminated milk by a chemical product (Rigby, 2011) Kraft invests largely in improving its technology to minimize their Co2 emission and protect the environment and reduce global warming. They have incorporated policies to increase the use of rail and low emission modes of transport instead of using trucks (Kraft, 2010) Key Drivers To get and understanding to what the key drivers are, then answering questions of intent is the first item to uncover. An examination of processes and practices is not the only method when studying CSR, but also in depth discussions of communication strategies within CSR. In which way do social and organizational factors cultivate and shape the beliefs and norms that drive organizations to engage in socially responsible activities? A practical way to accomplish this would be to consult top management since they are normally the candidates that spear head CSR initiatives (Lee, 2010) Ethical Consumerism How aware are end users of the activities of the company they buy their product from? Front a B2B standpoint, are converter factories making conscious decisions about who they trade with? Responsible Investment This drives public /institutional investors as well as high net worth individuals to invest in ethically responsible companies. This is a big encouragement for companies to comply and produce CSR reports Shrinking Role of Government This is evident in the fact that due to the shrinking role of governments to solve the problems and issues within the society, its it becoming increasingly clear that organizations are taking on this role. Public Pressure/NGO We can establish that trade unions and NGOs do play a big role in pushing CSR initiatives, therefore due to the possible reputational consequences, firms are partly incorporating more inclusive CSR policies and initiatives. Conclusion Parameters for measuring a companys value or worth and competitiveness has evolved over time, especially since the time Friedman wrote his article in the 1960s. Hence with the ease of access and availability of external information, ie. Macro factors, yes parameters have changed. Therefore in the 60s, companies that took part in social initiatives were rarely publicized or even made known to the larger audience or media. Where as in this current day and age, even the slightest alteration in the CSR policy of the company or social activity is documented and either praise or frowned upon. To sum up, this is a view point Milton Friedman may have not anticipated at the time when analyzing and writing his report.

Cigarette Ad Essay -- essays research papers

Smoking Your Health Away   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Puff, puff, puff . . . ummm the cool fresh taste of smoke in your lungs. Doesn’t that taste good Well, depending to whom you talk to, a variety of answers are possible. It is interesting though, that we, as a society, actually are still deceived into believing the false promises of happiness and bliss from smoking cigarettes. In our society people still deny and forget the fact that smoking causes lung cancer and directly kills over a million people every year, and that is just what tobacco advertisement departments would like to have you forget. Nowadays, advertising has become a major part of American society today. Everywhere you go there is advertising to be seen and absorbed by the consumer population. Nowadays, every company has a specific company inside the big business that’s sole purpose it to come up with interesting and new ways to promote its product. One industry that has been under fire for the types of advertising done during the last ten years is the tobacco industry. Major tobacco companies, specifically the R.J. Reynolds and Laramie corporations, spend millions of dollars each and every year, selectively advertising to older audiences in the Camel ad and to people who are socially active like the ones in the Newport ad, by intentionally using popular icons like Joe Camel and American ideals like the red, white, and blue coloring in the Camel ad, and by using human emotions like desire and popularity that everyone can relate to as found in the Newport ad, all in an attempt to sell a specific idea . . . cigarettes are pleasurable and enjoying to smoke.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the advertisement put out by the R.J. Reynolds Company showcasing its Camel cigarettes, the attempt is made to seduce the customers into believing that it is hip and cool to smoke cigarettes. The first thing you notice in this particular advertisement is the large puffy red Afro donned by the man perfectly centered in the ad. He seems to be a throwback to the seventies when there was a collective feeling of freedom and invincibility enjoyed by the youth growing up in that era. It seem this man is living a surreal world full of bliss and happiness. His long smooth sideburns, small golden sunglasses tinted with a fresh color of purple, and attention-grabbing starred blue suede shirt with the leather pul... ...sements have a very cunning way of anticipating and targeting what kind of person the company wants to carry on the tradition of smoking cigarettes. In the Camel ad, they concept is mixing the old with the new, while in the Newport ad the whole idea is having fun and being part of a larger group. Also, both of the ads use specific coloring to enhance the product. The American red, white, and blue in the Camel ad, and the trademark green in the Newport ad. It is also interesting to compare what the Camel ad has that the Newport ad does not. For one the Camel advertisement actually has a man smoking a cigarette in the ad in comparison to no cigarette shown in the Newport ad. Also, on the Camel ad it is noticeable that there is a surgeon generals warning on the bottom left corner of the ad, informing people on the risks of smoking cigarettes. This is not found anywhere on the ad for the Newport cigarettes and possibly lets the prospective consumer be at ease not seeing the awful ris ks of smoking and what it actually does to people. Finally, in comparing both of these advertisements, both of them are effective ads that clearly convey the intended ideas of both companies, respectively.

Terrorism - Analysis of Pan Am 103 and the Tokyo Subway :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Lessons from Pan Am 103 and the Tokyo Subway      Ã‚   ABSTRACT: Terrorists were very active long before September 11. This essay reviews the 1988 downing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland and the March 1995 gas attack in the Tokyo subway. The results of these terrorist acts, who carried them out, how they were carried out, and what can be done in the future to prevent such incidents from happening again are all investigated.    On December 21, 1988 the world was shocked as a Boeing 747 Pan American Airlines flight from London's Heathrow Airport to New York City crashed in a fiery ball due to a terrorist-placed bomb in the forward luggage compartment. After the explosion the plane proceeded to break up into three different parts. The wings broke off separately, as did the main fuselage, and the first-class/cockpit area. All 259 people on-board, from twenty-one different countries, died, as well as eleven people of the town of Lockerbie, Scotland, where the plane was downed.    In a remarkably short amount of time after the crash hundreds of people were on the scene doing the initial investigative work that would eventually lead to finding the crash's cause as well as the perpetrators of the offense. Over one thousand police officers were dispensed on to the scene, over six hundred military personnel, morticians from the Royal Air Force, and teams of investigators from the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Central Intelligence Agency, the National Transportation Safety Board, the U.S. State Department, the Federal Aviation Agency, the Boeing Company, and Pratt and Whitney. These people started surveying a land area that was seemingly too large to negotiate, 845 square miles. The United States also moved some of their extremely sophisticated spy satellites over southern Scotland to give the investigating teams high-resolution reconnaissance photographs of the area being searched.    The investigators were able to figure out fairly quickly that what brought down Flight 103 was a bomb, as it had all of the tell-tale signs, including no emergency or distress calls prior to the crash. The bomb had been concealed inside a Toshiba radio, which was placed inside a hard-sided Samsonite suitcase that had been designated as an unaccompanied bag. The suitcase had been transferred from an Air Malta feeder flight out of Valletta.    By June of 1990, six months after the

Constructivism And Discovery Learning Education Essay

In 1960 Bruner publishedA The Procedure of Education. This was a landmark book which led to much experimentation and a wide scope of educational plans in the 1960 ‘s. Howard Gardner and other immature research workers worked under Bruner and were much-influenced by his work. In the early 70 ‘s Bruner left Harvard to learn at University of Oxford for several old ages ( 1972 – 1979 ) . He returned to Harvard in 1979.A Subsequently he joined the New York University of Law, where he is a senior research chap ( at the age of 93 ) .A TheoryA Bruner was one of the establishing male parents of constructivist theory.ConstructivismA is a wide conceptual model with legion positions, and Bruner ‘s is merely one. Bruner ‘s theoretical model is based on the subject that scholars construct new thoughts or constructs based upon bing cognition. Learning is an active procedure. Aspects of the procedure include choice and transmutation of information, determination devising, bring forthing hypotheses, and doing intending from information and experiences.A Bruner ‘s theories emphasize the significance of classification in acquisition. â€Å" To comprehend is to categorise, to gestate is to categorise, to larn is to organize classs, to do determinations is to categorise. † Interpreting information and experiences by similarities and differences is a cardinal concept.A Bruner was influenced byA Piaget'sA thoughts about cognitive development in kids. During the 1940 ‘s his early work focused on the impact of demands, motives, & A ; outlooks ( â€Å" mental sets † ) and their influence on perceptual experience. He besides looked at the function of schemes in the procedure of human classification, and development of human knowledge. He presented the point of position that kids are active problem-solvers and capable of researching â€Å" hard topics † . This was widely divergent from the dominant positions in instruction at the clip, but found an audience.A Four Key subjects emerged in Bruner ‘s early work: A Bruner emphasized the function of construction in larning and how it may be made cardinal in learning. Structure refers to relationships among factual elements and techniques. See the subdivision on classification, below.A He introduced the thoughts of â€Å" preparedness for larning † andA coiling course of study. Bruner believed that any topic could be taught at any phase of development in a manner that fit the kid ‘s cognitive abilities. Spiral course of study refers to the thought of revisiting basic thoughts over and over, constructing upon them and lucubrating to the degree of full apprehension and mastery.A Bruner believed that intuitive and analytical thought should both be encouraged and rewarded. He believed the intuitive accomplishments were under-emphasized and he reflected on the ability of experts in every field to do intuitive leaps.A He investigated motive for larning. He felt that ideally, involvement in the capable affair is the best stimulation for larning. Bruner did non like external competitory ends such as classs or category ranking.A Finally Bruner was strongly influenced by Vygotsky ‘s Hagiographas and began to turn away from the intrapersonal focal point he had had for acquisition, and began to follow a societal and political position of larning. Bruner argued that facets of cognitive public presentation are facilitated by linguistic communication. He stressed the importance of the societal scene in the acquisition of linguistic communication. His positions are similar to those ofA Piaget, A but he places more accent on the societal influences on development. The earliest societal scene is the mother-child couple, where kids work out the significances of vocalizations to which they are repeatedly exposed. Bruner identified several of import societal devices including joint attending, common regard, and turn-taking.A Bruner besides incorporated Darwinian thought into his basic premises about acquisition. He believed it was necessary to mention to human civilization and archpriest development in order to understand growing and development. He did, nevertheless, believe there were single differences and that no standard sequence could be found for all scholars. He considered direction as an attempt to help or determine growth.In 1996 he published The Culture of Education.. This book reflected his alterations in point of views since the 1960 ‘s. He adopted the point of position that civilization shapes the head and provides the natural stuff with which we constrict our universe and our self-conception.A Four characteristics of Bruner ‘s theory of instruction.A 1. Sensitivity to larn†¦ . This characteristic specifically states the experiences which move the scholar toward a love of larning in general, or of larning something in peculiar. Motivational, cultural, and personal factors contribute to this. Bruner emphasized societal factors and early instructors and parents ‘ influence on this. He believed acquisition and job work outing emerged out of geographic expedition. Part of the undertaking of a instructor is to keep and direct a kid ‘s self-generated explorations.A 2. Structure of cognition†¦ .it is possible to construction cognition in a manner that enables the scholar to most readily hold on the information. This is a comparative characteristic, as there are many ways to construction a organic structure of cognition and many penchants among scholars. Bruner offered considerable item about structuring knowledge.A Understanding the cardinal construction of a topic makes it more comprehendible. Bruner viewed classification as a cardinal procedure in the structuring of cognition. ( See the subdivision below on classification. ) A Detailss are better retained when placed within the competition of an ordered and structured pattern.A To bring forth cognition which is movable to other contexts, cardinal rules or forms are best suited.A The disagreement between get downing and advanced cognition in a capable country is diminished when direction centres on a construction and rules of orientation. This means that a organic structure of cognition must be in a simple adequate signifier for the scholar to understand it and it must be in a signifier recognizable to the pupil ‘s experience.A 3. Manners of representation: ocular, words, symbols.A 4. Effective sequencing- no 1 sequencing will suit every scholar, but in general, increasing trouble. Sequencing, or deficiency of it, can do larning easier or more difficult.A Form and tempo of reinforcementA Classification: A Bruner gave much attending to classification of information in the building of internal cognitive maps. He believed that perceptual experience, conceptualisation, acquisition, determination devising, and doing illations all involved categorization.A Bruner suggested a system of coding in which people form a hierarchal agreement of related classs. Each in turn higher degree of classs becomes more specific, repeating Benjamin Bloom ‘s apprehension of cognition acquisition every bit good as the related thought of instructional staging ( Bloom ‘s Taxonomy ) .A CategoriesA are â€Å" regulations † that stipulate four thing about objects.A 1. Criterial attributes – required features for inclusion of an object in a class. ( Example, for an object to be included in the class â€Å" auto † it must hold an engine, 4 wheels, and be a possible agency of transit, A 2. The 2nd regulation prescribes how the criteral properties are combined.A 3. The 3rd regulation assignees weight to assorted belongingss. ( Example, it could be a auto even if a tyre was losing, and if it was used for haling lading it would be shifted to a different class of â€Å" truck † or possibly â€Å" new wave † .A 4. The 4th regulation sets acceptance bounds on properties. Some properties can change widely, such as colour. Others are fixed. For illustration a vehicle without an engine is non a auto. Likewise, a vehicle with merely two wheels would non be included in â€Å" auto † .A There a several sorts of classs: A Identity categories – classs include objects based on their properties or features.A Equivalent classs ( supply regulations for uniting classs. Equality can be determined by affectional standards, which render objects tantamount by emotional reactions, functional standards, based on related maps ( for illustration, â€Å" auto † , â€Å" truck † , â€Å" new wave † could all be combined in an inclusive class called â€Å" motor vehicle † ) , or by formal standards, for illustration by scientific discipline, jurisprudence, or cultural understanding. For illustration, and apple is still an apple whether it is green, mature, dried, etc ( individuality ) . It is nutrient ( functional ) , and it is a member of of a botanical categorization group ( formal ) .A Coding systemsA are classs serve to acknowledge centripetal input. They are major organisational variables in higher cognitive operation. Traveling beyond immediate centripetal informations involves doing illations on the footing of related classs. Related classs form a â€Å" cryptography system. † These are hierarchal agreements of related categories.A Bruner ‘s theories introduced the thought that people interpret the universe mostly in footings of similarities and differences.A This is a important part to how persons construct their alone theoretical accounts of the world.A ApplicationA Bruner emphasized four features of effectual direction which emerged from his theoretical constructs.A 1. Personalized: direction should associate to scholars ‘ sensitivity, and facilitate involvement toward larning, A 2. Contented Structure: content should be structured so it can be most easy grasped by the learnerA 3. Sequencing: sequencing is an of import facet for presentation of materialA 4. Support: wagess and penalty should be selected and paced appropriately.A Intellectual DevelopmentA Bruner postulated three phases of rational development.A The first phase he termed â€Å" Enactive † , when a individual learns about the universe through actions on physical objects and the results of these actions.A The 2nd phase was called â€Å" Iconic † where acquisition can be obtained through utilizing theoretical accounts and pictures.A The concluding phase was â€Å" Symbolic † in which the scholar develops the capacity to believe in abstract footings. Based on this three-stage impression, Bruner recommended utilizing a combination of concrete, pictural so symbolic activities will take to more effectual learning.A Bruner, J. ( 1960 ) . The Procedure of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University PressA Harley, 1995A hypertext transfer protocol: //tip.psychology.org/bruner.htmlA LeFrancois, 1972A Sahakian, 1976 The Importance of Language Language is of import for the increased ability to cover with abstract concepts.BrunerA argues thatA languageA can code stimulations and free an person from the restraints of covering merely with visual aspects, to supply a more complex yet flexible knowledge. The usage of words can help the development of the constructs they represent and can take the restraints of the â€Å" here & amp ; now † construct. Basically, he sees the baby as an intelligent & A ; active job convergent thinker from birth, with rational abilities fundamentally similar to those of the mature grownup. Harmonizing to Bruner the kid represents the universe to himself in three different ways. Educational Deductions of Bruner ‘s Theory For Bruner ( 1961 ) , the intent of instruction is non to leave cognition, but alternatively to ease a kid ‘s thought and job resolution accomplishments which can so be transferred to a scope of state of affairss. Specifically, instruction should besides develop symbolic thought in kids. In 1960 Bruner ‘s text, A The Procedure of EducationA was published. The chief premiss of Bruner ‘s text was that pupils are active scholars who construct their ain cognition. Bruner ( 1960 ) opposedA Piaget'sA impression of preparedness. He argued that schools waste clip seeking to fit the complexness of capable stuff to a kid ‘s cognitive phase of development. This means pupils are held back by instructors as certain subjects are deemed to hard to understand and must be taught when the instructor believes the kid has reached the appropriate province of cognitive adulthood. Bruner ( 1960 ) adopts a different position and believes a kid ( of any age ) is capable of understanding complex information: A ‘We Begin with the hypothesis that any topic can be taught efficaciously in some intellectually honorable signifier to any kid at any phase of development ‘ . ( p. 33 ) Bruner ( 1960 ) explained how this was possible through the construct of theA coiling course of study. This involved information being structured so that complex thoughts can be taught at a simplified degree foremost, and so re-visited at more complex degrees subsequently on. Therefore, topics would be taught at degrees of bit by bit increasing difficultly ( hence the coiling analogy ) . Ideally learning his manner should take to kids being able to work out jobs by themselves. Bruner ( 1961 ) proposes that scholars ‘ construct their ain cognition and make this by forming and categorising information utilizing a cryptography system. Bruner believe that the most consequence manner to develop a cryptography system is to detect it instead than being told it by the instructor. The construct ofA find learningA implies that pupils construct their ain cognition for themselves ( besides known as a constructist attack ) . The function of the instructor should non be to learn information by rote acquisition, but alternatively to ease the acquisition procedure. This means that a good instructor will plan lessons that help student detect the relationship between spots of information. To make this a instructor must give pupils the information they need, but without forming for them. The usage of the coiling course of study can help the procedure ofA find acquisition. Bruner and Vygotsky Both Bruner and Vygotsky emphasise a kid ‘s environment, particularly the societal environment, more than Piaget did. Both agree that grownups should play an active function in helping the kid ‘s acquisition. Bruner, like Vygotksy, emphasised the societal nature of acquisition, mentioning that other people should assist a kid develop accomplishments through the procedure ofA scaffolding. The term scaffolding foremost appeared in the literature when Wood, Bruner and Ross described how coachs ‘ interacted with pre-schooler to assist them work out a block Reconstruction job ( Wood et al. , 1976 ) . The construct of staging is really similar toA Vygotsky'sA impression of theA zone of proximal development, and it non uncommon for the footings to be used interchangeably.ScaffoldingA involves helpful, structured interaction between an grownup and a kid with the purpose of assisting the kid achieve a specific end. Difference Between Bruner and Piaget Obviously there are similarities betweenA PiagetA and Bruner, but an importantdifferenceA is that Bruner ‘s manners are non related in footings of which presuppose the 1 that precedes it. Whilst sometimes one manner may rule in use, they co-exist. Bruner states that what determines the degree of rational development is the extent to which the kid has been given appropriate direction together with pattern or experience. So – the right manner of presentation and the right account will enable a kid to hold on a construct normally merely understood by an grownup. His theory stresses the function of instruction and the grownup. AlthoughA Bruner proposesA phases of cognitive development, he does n't see them as stand foring different separate manners of idea at different points of development ( like Piaget ) . Alternatively, he sees a gradual development of cognitive accomplishments and techniques into more incorporate â€Å" grownup † cognitive techniques. Bruner viewsA symbolic representationA as important for cognitive development and since linguistic communication is our primary agencies of typifying the universe, he attaches great importance to linguistic communication in finding cognitive development.BRUNER AGREES WITH PIAGETBRUNER DISAGREES WITH PIAGET1. Childs are PRE-ADAPTED to larn 1. Development is a CONTINUOUS PROCESS – non a series of phases 2. Childs have a NATURAL CURIOSITY 2. The development of LANGUAGE is a cause non a effect of cognitive development 3. Children ‘s COGNITIVE STRUCTURES develop over clip 3. You can SPEED-UP cognitive development. You do n't hold to wait for the kid to be ready 4. Childs are Active participants in the acquisition procedure 4. The engagement of ADULTS and MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a large difference 5. Cognitive development entails the acquisition of SYMBOLS 5. Symbolic idea does NOT REPLACE EARLIER MODES OF REPRESENTATION